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English Grammar
Complete Reference Guide — Grammar Rules · Spelling · Punctuation · Tenses · Idioms · Usage —

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✦ Contents

Parts of Speech — The Building Blocks
Articles — A, An, The & Zero Article
Nouns — Singular, Plural & Countability
Adjectives — Order, Comparison & Degree
Pronouns — Personal, Relative & Reflexive
Verb Tenses — The Complete System
Modal Verbs — Can, Must, Should & More
Conditionals — If Clauses & Hypotheticals
Active vs. Passive Voice
Prepositions — In, On, At & Beyond
Spelling Rules — Tricky Patterns & Exceptions
Punctuation — American vs. British Conventions
American vs. British English — Key Differences
Common Errors — What to Avoid
Idioms & Phrasal Verbs — Essential Expressions
Register — Formal, Neutral & Informal
Phrasebook — Everyday Communication

✦ Section 1

Parts of Speech — The Eight Building Blocks of English

Every word in English belongs to at least one part of speech — a category that describes how the word functions in a sentence. Mastering these eight categories unlocks the logic of all English grammar.

Part of Speech	Function	Key Questions	Examples
Noun	Names a person, place, thing, or idea	Who? What?	dog · city · freedom · JohnProper nouns are capitalised: London, Tuesday
Verb	Expresses action, occurrence, or state of being	What does it do? What happens?	run · think · is · becameEvery sentence needs at least one verb
Adjective	Modifies or describes a noun or pronoun	Which? What kind? How many?	tall · three · red · brilliantComes before the noun or after linking verbs
Adverb	Modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb	How? When? Where? How much?	quickly · very · yesterday · hereMany adverbs end in -ly (but not all)
Pronoun	Replaces a noun to avoid repetition	Who replaces the noun?	he · she · they · it · whom · whichMust agree with its antecedent in number/gender
Preposition	Shows the relationship between a noun and another word	Where? When? In what way?	in · on · at · by · with · throughAlways followed by a noun phrase (object)
Conjunction	Connects words, phrases, or clauses	How are ideas linked?	and · but · because · although · ifCoordinating: FANBOYS (For And Nor But Or Yet So)
Interjection	Expresses emotion, often independently	What feeling is expressed?	Oh! · Wow! · Oops · Hey · AlasUsually punctuated with ! or followed by a comma

✦ Phrases, Clauses & Sentences A phrase is a group of words without a subject-verb pair: the old man · running fast · in the morning
A clause has a subject and a verb. An independent clause can stand alone; a dependent clause cannot: She left [independent] because it was late [dependent].
A sentence must contain at least one independent clause and express a complete thought. It begins with a capital letter and ends with a full stop, question mark, or exclamation mark.

✦ Section 2

Articles — A, An, The & Zero Article

English has three articles: the definite article the, the indefinite articles a/an, and the "zero article" (no article at all). Choosing the correct one is one of the most common challenges for learners.

Definite — THE
Use when	Specific, already known, unique things
✓ The sun is bright.	Only one sun
✓ Pass the salt.	Specific salt on table
✓ The Thames	Named rivers, seas, ranges
✓ the French	Nationality groups (plural)

Indefinite — A / AN
Use when	Non-specific, first mention, one of many
✓ I saw a dog.	Any dog, not specific
✓ She's an engineer.	Profession / classification
✓ once a week	Rate / frequency
✓ What a day!	Exclamations with singular nouns

A vs. AN — The Sound Rule: Use A before a consonant sound; use AN before a vowel sound. It is the sound that matters, not the spelling.
an hour (h is silent → vowel sound) · a university (starts with /j/ sound → consonant) · an honest mistake · a European country (starts with /j/)

✦ Zero Article — When No Article Is Used Plural countable nouns in general statements: Dogs are loyal. / Books open minds.
Uncountable nouns in general statements: Water is essential. / Music soothes the soul.
Proper nouns (most): London · France · Lake Superior · Mount Everest · Oxford Street
Languages, subjects, sports: She speaks Spanish. / He studies maths. / They play football.
Meals, transport, locations (go home / by train / at work): Have breakfast · go to school · travel by bus

✦ Section 3

Nouns — Singular, Plural & Countability

English nouns can be countable (can be counted: one book, two books) or uncountable (cannot be counted individually: water, advice, furniture). This distinction affects which articles, determiners and verb forms are used.

✦ Forming Plurals — Rules and Exceptions Regular: add -s → cat → cats · book → books · table → tables
Sibilants (-s, -ss, -sh, -ch, -x, -z): add -es → bus → buses · church → churches · box → boxes
Consonant + -y: change y → -ies → city → cities · baby → babies · story → stories
Most nouns in -f/-fe: change to -ves → leaf → leaves · wife → wives · knife → knives
Exceptions: roof → roofs · cliff → cliffs · belief → beliefs
Nouns in -o: add -es (common ones) → tomato → tomatoes · hero → heroes but photo → photos · piano → pianos
Irregular plurals: man → men · woman → women · child → children · foot → feet · tooth → teeth · mouse → mice · goose → geese · ox → oxen
Unchanged in plural: sheep · deer · fish · species · aircraft · series

Countable	Uncountable	Notes
Can be singular or plural a chair · three chairs	Only singular; no article a/an furniture (not: a furniture)	Use some / any / much / a little with uncountable nouns
Common uncountable nouns: advice · information · knowledge · luggage · furniture · equipment · money · news · research · traffic · weather · homework · progress · work · time · music · food · water · air ⚠ "Advices" and "informations" are NEVER correct in English.

Quantifying Uncountable Nouns: Use a "container" or measure word to quantify uncountable nouns:
a piece of advice · a piece of information · a bag of luggage · an item of furniture · a glass of water · a loaf of bread · a bit of progress · a burst of music

✦ Possessives — Apostrophe Rules Singular noun: add 's → the dog's collar · James's car · the company's policy
Plural noun ending in -s: add only ' → the students' books · the Smiths' house
Irregular plural (not ending in -s): add 's → the children's room · the men's team · the women's rights
Joint vs. individual possession: Tom and Kate's house (shared) vs. Tom's and Kate's houses (separate)

✦ Section 4

Adjectives — Order, Comparison & Degree

English adjectives have a strictly observed order when several are stacked before a noun. Getting this order wrong sounds immediately unnatural to native speakers.

✦ Royal Order of Adjectives — The Fixed Sequence When multiple adjectives precede a noun, they must follow this order:

1 Opinion → 2 Size → 3 Age → 4 Shape → 5 Colour → 6 Origin → 7 Material → 8 Purpose + NOUN

a lovely little old rectangular green French silver whittling knife

Everyday examples:
a beautiful large old house (opinion · size · age)
two small round black buttons (number · size · shape · colour)
a delicious Italian leather handbag (opinion · origin · material)

✦ Comparison of Adjectives Short adjectives (1 syllable, most 2-syllable): add -er / -est
tall → taller → tallest · fast → faster → fastest · happy → happier → happiest
Long adjectives (3+ syllables, most 2-syllable): use more / most
beautiful → more beautiful → most beautiful · expensive → more expensive → most expensive
Irregular comparatives:
good → better → best · bad → worse → worst · far → farther/further → farthest/furthest · little → less → least · many/much → more → most
Equality: as + adjective + as → She is as tall as her brother.
Inferiority: less + adjective + than → This is less expensive than that.

✦ Section 5

Pronouns — Personal, Relative & Reflexive

Person	Subject	Object	Possessive Adj.	Possessive Pro.	Reflexive
1st sing.	I	me	my	mine	myself
2nd sing./pl.	you	you	your	yours	yourself / yourselves
3rd sing. masc.	he	him	his	his	himself
3rd sing. fem.	she	her	her	hers	herself
3rd sing. neut.	it	it	its	—	itself
1st plural	we	us	our	ours	ourselves
3rd plural	they	them	their	theirs	themselves
Gender-neutral sing.	they	them	their	theirs	themselves

Who vs. Whom — The Subject/Object Test: If you can answer with he/she/they, use who. If the answer is him/her/them, use whom.
Who called? → He called. ✓ · Whom did you call? → I called him. ✓
In informal speech, who is widely accepted in both positions, but whom is preferred in formal writing.

✦ Relative Pronouns — Who, Which, That, Whose, Whom Who / whom → for people: The woman who called. / The man whom I met.
Which → for things and animals: The book which I read. / The car, which is red.
That → for people or things in defining clauses (no comma): The house that Jack built.
Whose → possession for people or things: The student whose work was best. / The car whose engine failed.
Defining vs. Non-defining: Defining clauses use that or no commas. Non-defining clauses use which with commas: The book that I lost [defining] / My car, which is red, [non-defining].

✦ Section 6

Verb Tenses — The Complete System

English has 12 main tenses formed from combinations of past, present and future with simple, continuous, perfect and perfect continuous aspects. The key is understanding aspect — how an action relates to time — not just when it happens.

PAST Completed actions Simple: I worked
Continuous: I was working
Perfect: I had worked
Perf. Cont.: I had been working

PRESENT Current / habitual Simple: I work
Continuous: I am working
Perfect: I have worked
Perf. Cont.: I have been working

FUTURE Coming actions Simple: I will work
Continuous: I will be working
Perfect: I will have worked
Perf. Cont.: I will have been working

ASPECT Key distinctions Simple = fact/habit
Continuous = in progress
Perfect = result matters
Perf. Cont. = duration + result

Tense	Form	Key Use	Signal Words
Present Simple	work / works	Habits, facts, schedules	always · never · every day · usuallyShe works in London.
Present Continuous	am/is/are working	Action happening now; temporary situations; future plans	now · at the moment · currentlyI am working right now.
Present Perfect	have/has worked	Past action with present relevance; experience; recent events	already · just · yet · ever · never · since · forI have lived here for ten years.
Past Simple	worked	Completed action at a specific time in the past	yesterday · last year · in 2010 · agoShe left an hour ago.
Past Continuous	was/were working	Action in progress at a past moment; background action	while · when · at 8 o'clock yesterdayI was sleeping when she called.
Past Perfect	had worked	Action completed before another past action	before · after · by the time · alreadyShe had left before I arrived.
Future Simple	will work	Predictions, spontaneous decisions, promises	tomorrow · next week · in the futureI will call you tomorrow.
be going to	am/is/are going to work	Plans and intentions; predictions based on evidence	soon · this weekend · tonightI'm going to study medicine.

✦ Irregular Verbs — The Most Essential Forms be → was/were → been · have → had → had · do → did → done · go → went → gone
get → got → gotten/got · make → made → made · take → took → taken · give → gave → given
come → came → come · know → knew → known · see → saw → seen · say → said → said
think → thought → thought · find → found → found · tell → told → told · feel → felt → felt
leave → left → left · put → put → put · read → read → read · cut → cut → cut

Present Perfect: American vs. British difference:
British: I've just eaten. / Have you seen the news yet? (Present Perfect preferred)
American: I just ate. / Did you see the news yet? (Past Simple also accepted)
Both are grammatically correct; the distinction is a strong regional preference.

✦ Section 7

Modal Verbs — Can, Must, Should & More

Modal verbs express attitude, possibility, obligation and permission. They never change form and are always followed by the base infinitive (without "to"), with the exception of ought to.

Modal	Primary Meanings	Examples
can	Ability · Informal permission · Possibility	I can swim. / Can I leave? / It can be cold in May.Past: could · Negative: can't / cannot
could	Past ability · Polite request · Possibility · Suggestion	She could play piano as a child. / Could you help me? / It could rain.More tentative and polite than "can"
will	Future · Willingness · Prediction · Promise	I will be there. / I'll help you. / It will rain tomorrow.Negative: won't / will not
would	Hypothetical · Polite request · Past habit · Preference	I would love to. / Would you mind? / She would often sing. / I'd rather stay.Used in conditionals and indirect speech
must	Strong obligation · Logical certainty	You must wear a seatbelt. / She must be tired.Negative: must not (prohibition) vs. don't have to (no obligation)
should	Advice · Expectation · Mild obligation	You should see a doctor. / The train should be here by now.Softer than "must". Negative: shouldn't
may	Formal permission · Possibility (50/50)	May I come in? / It may rain this afternoon.More formal than "can" for permission
might	Slight possibility · Tentative suggestion	I might go to the party. / You might want to reconsider.Less certain than "may"
shall	Offer · Suggestion · Formal future (British)	Shall we dance? / I shall return. (formal/literary)Mostly replaced by "will" in modern American English
ought to	Moral obligation · Expectation (similar to should)	You ought to apologise. / It ought to be ready by now.Takes "to" unlike other modals

Modal + Have + Past Participle — Talking About the Past:
should have done → regret about past: You should have called me.
could have done → unrealised past possibility: She could have been a doctor.
must have done → logical deduction about past: He must have left already.
might have done → uncertain past possibility: I might have left it at home.

✦ Section 8

Conditionals — If Clauses & Hypotheticals

English has four main conditional structures, ranging from certain real conditions to impossible hypotheticals. Each requires a specific combination of tenses.

Type	If Clause	Main Clause	Use & Example
Zero Conditional	present simple	present simple	General truths and scientific facts If you heat water to 100°C, it boils.
First Conditional	present simple	will + infinitive	Real / likely future situations If it rains, we will stay inside.
Second Conditional	past simple	would + infinitive	Hypothetical / unlikely present or future If I had a million dollars, I would travel the world.
Third Conditional	past perfect	would have + past participle	Imaginary past — things that didn't happen If she had studied, she would have passed the exam.
Mixed Conditional	past perfect	would + infinitive	Past condition → present consequence If I had slept well, I wouldn't be so tired now.

Were in Second Conditional: Formal English uses were for all subjects in the second conditional (not "was"):
If I were you, I would apologise. / If she were here, she would agree.
In informal speech, was is increasingly common for I/he/she/it, but were is always preferred in writing.

✦ Section 9

Active vs. Passive Voice — When and How to Use Each

✦ Forming the Passive — Be + Past Participle Active: Subject does the action → The chef prepared the meal.
Passive: Subject receives the action → The meal was prepared (by the chef).

Formula: appropriate form of BE + past participle (+ by + agent)
Present: The letters are written. · Past: The letters were written.
Future: The letters will be written. · Perfect: The letters have been written.
Modal: The letters must be written. / The letters should be signed.

Use Passive When…	Example
The agent (doer) is unknown	My wallet was stolen.
The agent is unimportant or obvious	The results will be announced on Friday.
You want to emphasise the action or result over the doer	Penicillin was discovered in 1928.
Formal / scientific / official writing (avoiding "I" / "we")	The experiment was conducted under strict conditions.
To avoid assigning blame directly	Mistakes were made. (not: "I made mistakes")

✦ Section 10

Prepositions — In, On, At & Beyond

✦ The Big Three — IN, ON, AT for Time and Place IN → large/general: in January · in 2024 · in the morning · in the city · in a country · in a room
ON → surface/specific day: on Monday · on 5th June · on the table · on a street · on a floor · on the radio
AT → precise point/time: at 3 o'clock · at noon · at the station · at the door · at university · at work

Preposition	Key Uses	Examples
in	Enclosed space · Country/city · Months/years/seasons · Period of time	in the box · in France · in March · in the 1990s · in winter · in ten minutes
on	Surface · Days/dates · Media · Transport (public) · Street	on the shelf · on Monday · on 14 July · on TV · on the bus · on Oxford Street
at	Precise location · Exact time · Events · Email addresses	at the corner · at 6pm · at Christmas · at the concert · at university
for	Duration · Purpose · Beneficiary	for three hours · for sale · a gift for you · I did it for fun
since	Starting point of a period (use with Perfect tenses)	I've lived here since 2010. / She hasn't called since Monday.
by	Deadline · Agent in passive · Means · Next to	by Friday · written by Orwell · sent by email · sit by the window
with	Accompaniment · Instrument · Having	come with me · cut with a knife · a house with a garden
to	Direction · Recipient · Time range · Infinitive marker	go to London · give it to her · from 9 to 5 · I want to learn
of	Possession · Part of whole · Made of · Quantity	the colour of the sky · a glass of water · a piece of cake

FOR vs. SINCE — Duration vs. Starting Point:
FOR + period of time (how long): I have worked here for five years. / She waited for two hours.
SINCE + point in time (when it started): I have worked here since 2019. / She has been waiting since noon.
Quick test: Can you replace the phrase with "during X amount of time"? → use FOR. Can you replace it with "from that moment"? → use SINCE.

✦ Section 11

Spelling Rules — Tricky Patterns & Exceptions

✦ I Before E — The Classic Rule (and Its Exceptions)

I before E, except after C, or when sounding like A as in "neighbour" and "weigh"

I before E: believe · achieve · field · grief · piece · thief · yield · brief
E before I after C: receive · deceive · ceiling · perceive · conceive
EI with /eɪ/ sound: eight · weigh · neighbour · vein · reign · freight
Important exceptions: weird · seize · either · neither · foreign · height · leisure · protein · science · species · sufficient

✦ Doubling the Final Consonant — When Adding Suffixes

Double the final consonant before -ing, -ed, -er when: 1-syllable word + 1 vowel + 1 consonant

run → running · stop → stopped · big → bigger · hit → hitting
Multi-syllable words: double only if the last syllable is stressed:
begin → beginning · prefer → preferred · occur → occurring
No doubling if: ends in 2 consonants, 2 vowels before consonant, or unstressed final syllable:
jump → jumping · need → needed · open → opening · listen → listened

British English doubles L even in unstressed syllables: travel → travelling (UK) vs. traveling (US)

✦ Silent E — Drop or Keep When Adding Suffixes

Drop the silent E before vowel suffixes; keep it before consonant suffixes

Drop before -ing, -ed, -er, -able, -ous: make → making · hope → hoping · love → lovable · fame → famous
Keep before -ment, -ful, -less, -ness: excite → excitement · hope → hopeful · use → useless
Keep E after soft C or G: notice → noticeable · change → changeable · courage → courageous

✦ Changing Y to I — Plurals and Verb Forms

Consonant + Y: change Y to I before -es, -ed, -er, -est, -ness:
city → cities · carry → carried · happy → happier · happy → happiness
Vowel + Y: keep the Y:
day → days · play → played · boy → boys · enjoy → enjoyed
Exception — before -ing: always keep the Y: carry → carrying · try → trying

Commonly Misspelled Words — The Notorious List:
accommodate · unnecessary · occurrence · separate (not seperate) · definitely (not definately) · receive · believe · their / there / they're · your / you're · its / it's · affect / effect · principal / principle · complement / compliment · stationary / stationery · practice (noun) / practise (verb, British)

✦ Section 12

Punctuation — American vs. British Conventions

Mark	Name	Key Rules	Example
.	Full Stop (UK) / Period (US)	End of sentence; abbreviations (US style: Mr. / UK style: Mr)	She left early.
,	Comma	Lists; before coordinating conjunctions; after introductory phrases; non-restrictive clauses	I bought bread, milk, and eggs.Oxford/serial comma (bread, milk, and eggs) preferred in US
;	Semicolon	Links two independent clauses; separates complex list items	She studied hard; she passed the exam.Can be replaced by "and/but" or a full stop
:	Colon	Introduces a list, explanation, or quotation. After a complete clause.	You need three things: patience, practice, and time.
—	Em Dash	Strong pause; parenthetical emphasis; introducing a list (informal)	She had one goal—to win.UK: often spaced en dash ( – ); US: em dash no space (—)
" "	Quotation Marks	Direct speech; titles of short works; US style uses double quotes first	"I'll be back," he said.UK often uses single quotes first: 'I'll be back.'
'	Apostrophe	Possession (John's); contractions (don't, it's); NOT plurals (❌ apple's)	It's the dog's bowl.its = possessive (no apostrophe). it's = it is.
( )	Parentheses / Brackets	Supplementary information; asides; acronym expansions	The WHO (World Health Organization) reported...
...	Ellipsis	Omission; trailing thought; pause in speech	I'm not sure... maybe later.
-	Hyphen	Compound modifiers before a noun; some prefixes; word division	well-known author · twenty-three · self-esteemNot used when modifier follows noun: The author is well known.

The Oxford Comma — Choosing a Side:
The Oxford (serial) comma is placed before and in the final item of a list. It is standard in American English and academic writing; it is optional (and often omitted) in British journalism.
Without: I'd like to thank my parents, Madonna and God. (ambiguous!)
With: I'd like to thank my parents, Madonna, and God. (clear)
Recommendation: Always use it to avoid ambiguity.

✦ Section 13

American vs. British English — Key Differences

✦ The Main Categories of Difference American and British English differ in spelling, vocabulary, pronunciation and some grammar patterns. Neither is "more correct" — they are equal variants of the same language. Consistency within one variety is what matters.

Key grammar differences: British uses Present Perfect more broadly where American uses Past Simple. British: in hospital · at university · at the weekend. American: in the hospital · at college · on the weekend.

American English	British English	Category
color · honor · flavor	colour · honour · flavour	Spelling: -or vs. -our
center · theater · meter	centre · theatre · metre	Spelling: -er vs. -re
organize · recognize · analyze	organise · recognise · analyse	Spelling: -ize vs. -ise (both acceptable in UK)
traveled · canceled · labeled	travelled · cancelled · labelled	Spelling: single vs. double L
defense · offense · license (n&v)	defence · offence · licence (n) / license (v)	Spelling: -se vs. -ce
apartment · elevator · first floor	flat · lift · ground floor	Vocabulary: housing
truck · gas · hood · trunk	lorry · petrol · bonnet · boot	Vocabulary: cars & transport
cookie · candy · chips · french fries	biscuit · sweets · crisps · chips	Vocabulary: food
soccer · fall · drugstore · sidewalk	football · autumn · chemist · pavement	Vocabulary: general
Did you eat yet?	Have you eaten yet?	Grammar: Past Simple vs. Present Perfect
He doesn't have any. / Do you have…?	He hasn't got any. / Have you got…?	Grammar: have vs. have got
I'll write him. / I'll call her.	I'll write to him. / I'll ring her.	Grammar: preposition use

✦ Section 14

Common Errors — What to Avoid

❌ Incorrect	✓ Correct	Rule
*I am agree with you.	I agree with you.	AGREE is a verb, not an adjective. Never use "am agree".
*She told me that she is tired.	She told me that she was tired.	Sequence of tenses: when the main verb is past, the reported verb shifts back.
*I have been here since three years.	I have been here for three years.	Use FOR with durations; SINCE with points in time.
*She suggested me to go.	She suggested (that) I go. / She suggested going.	SUGGEST cannot take an object + infinitive. Use a that-clause or gerund.
*The informations are wrong.	The information is wrong.	INFORMATION is uncountable. Never pluralised. Also: advice, furniture, news, luggage.
*I look forward to hear from you.	I look forward to hearing from you.	TO in "look forward to" is a preposition, so it's followed by a gerund (-ing), not an infinitive.
*Its a lovely day. / The dog lost it's bone.	It's a lovely day. / The dog lost its bone.	IT'S = it is (contraction). ITS = possessive. No apostrophe in possessive its.
*There is a lot of peoples.	There are a lot of people.	PEOPLE is already plural (irregular: person → people). Use ARE, not IS.
*I did not slept well.	I did not sleep well.	After DID/DIDN'T, always use the base form of the verb (no -ed, no past form).
*Despite of the rain, we went.	Despite the rain, we went.	DESPITE takes a noun/gerund directly. "Despite of" does not exist. Use IN SPITE OF if you want "of".
*I am interesting in art.	I am interested in art.	-ED adjectives describe feelings (interested/bored/excited). -ING adjectives describe causes (interesting/boring/exciting).
*He works since Monday.	He has been working since Monday.	SINCE with an ongoing situation requires Present Perfect or Present Perfect Continuous.
*She is more taller than him.	She is taller than him.	Never use MORE with -ER comparatives. Choose one: taller OR more tall (taller is correct).
*I like very much chocolate.	I really like chocolate. / I like chocolate very much.	VERY MUCH goes after the object, not between verb and object. Use REALLY before the verb.

-ED vs. -ING Adjectives — The Most Confusing Pair:
-ING describes what causes the feeling: The film is boring. (The film causes boredom.)
-ED describes how a person feels: I am bored. (I feel the boredom.)
Apply this test to every pair: exciting / excited · tiring / tired · confusing / confused · amazing / amazed · disappointing / disappointed · surprising / surprised · worrying / worried

✦ Section 15

Idioms & Phrasal Verbs — Essential Expressions

Phrasal verbs (verb + particle) and idioms are two of the most challenging aspects of English for learners. They are also among the most natural markers of fluency.

✦ Essential Phrasal Verbs — With Multiple Meanings

give upTo stop trying / To quit a habit: "Don't give up!" / "She gave up smoking."

look upTo search for information / Things are improving: "Look it up." / "Things are looking up."

run out ofTo have no more of something: "We've run out of time / milk / ideas."

bring upTo raise a child / To mention a topic: "She was brought up in Scotland." / "He brought it up at the meeting."

turn downTo refuse / To reduce volume: "She turned down the job offer." / "Turn down the music."

come acrossTo find by chance / To seem/appear: "I came across this photo." / "She comes across as confident."

get along (with)To have a good relationship: "Do you get along with your neighbours?"

put offTo postpone / To discourage: "Stop putting it off." / "The smell put me off eating."

take offPlane departs / Remove clothing / Become successful: "The plane took off." / "Take off your shoes." / "Her career took off."

go throughTo experience difficulty / To examine: "She's going through a tough time." / "Let's go through the report."

✦ Common Idioms — Body Parts

cost an arm and a legTo be very expensive: "That handbag costs an arm and a leg."

break a legGood luck! (used in theatre and performance contexts)

keep an eye onTo watch or monitor: "Can you keep an eye on my bag?"

pull someone's legTo tease or joke with someone: "Are you serious or just pulling my leg?"

bite the bulletTo endure a painful situation: "I'll just have to bite the bullet and apologise."

turn a blind eyeTo ignore something deliberately: "Management turned a blind eye to the problem."

on the tip of my tongueAlmost remembered but not quite: "His name is on the tip of my tongue."

let the cat out of the bagTo accidentally reveal a secret: "Don't let the cat out of the bag about the party."

✦ Idioms — Everyday Situations

under the weatherFeeling slightly ill: "I'm feeling a bit under the weather today."

once in a blue moonVery rarely: "She only visits once in a blue moon."

bite off more than you can chewTo take on too much: "I think I've bitten off more than I can chew with this project."

hit the nail on the headTo be exactly right: "You've hit the nail on the head — that's the problem."

see eye to eyeTo agree with someone: "We don't always see eye to eye on politics."

the ball is in your courtIt's your turn to decide/act: "I've made my offer — the ball is in your court."

burn bridgesTo permanently damage a relationship: "Be careful not to burn your bridges by leaving badly."

beat around the bushTo avoid the main topic: "Stop beating around the bush — what do you want to say?"

✦ Section 16

Register is the level of formality in language. Choosing the right register is as important as correct grammar — using formal language with close friends sounds stiff, and using slang in a job interview can be disqualifying.

Formal / Written	Neutral	Informal / Spoken
commence	start / begin	kick off
endeavour	try	have a go
request	ask	ask for / want
regarding / concerning	about	re: / on
assist	help	give a hand
terminate / conclude	end / finish	wrap up
sufficient	enough	plenty
Nevertheless / However	But / Still	But / Though
I would be grateful if you could…	Could you please…?	Can you…? / Mind…?
I regret to inform you that…	I'm sorry to tell you…	Bad news — …

✦ Contractions — Formal vs. Informal In formal writing, avoid contractions. Write the words out in full:
do not · cannot · will not · I am · it is · they are · should not · would not
In informal writing and speech, contractions are natural and expected:
don't · can't · won't · I'm · it's · they're · shouldn't · wouldn't
Double contractions (very informal/spoken): shouldn't've · wouldn't've · could've · I'd've

✦ Section 17

Phrasebook — Everyday Communication

✦ Greetings & Farewells — Formal to Informal

Good morning / Good afternoon / Good eveningFormal greeting appropriate to time of day

Hi / Hey / HelloNeutral to informal greetings for any context

How do you do?Very formal British greeting upon first meeting. Response: How do you do?

How are you? / How are you doing?Standard greeting. Expected response: Fine, thanks / Pretty good / Not bad.

What's up? / How's it going? / Alright?Very informal. Alright? is common British English greeting.

Pleased to meet you. / Nice to meet you.First meeting. Formal: It's a pleasure to meet you.

Goodbye / FarewellFormal farewell. Farewell is reserved for long or permanent partings.

Bye / See you / Take care / CheersInformal farewells. Cheers = goodbye/thanks (British informal).

✦ Asking for Clarification & Expressing Understanding

Could you repeat that, please?Polite request to repeat. More formal than "What?" or "Huh?"

I beg your pardon? / Pardon?Very polite way to ask for repetition (British preferred)

Could you speak more slowly, please?Useful for non-native speakers or on phone calls

What do you mean by…?Asking for clarification on a specific term or phrase

If I understand correctly, you mean…Paraphrasing to confirm understanding in professional contexts

I see. / I understand. / Got it. / Fair enough.Confirming comprehension. Fair enough = I accept/understand that.

That makes sense. / Absolutely. / Exactly.Agreeing and confirming in conversation

✦ Formal Writing — Emails, Letters & Documents

Dear Mr/Ms [surname], / To Whom It May Concern,Formal email/letter opening. Use To Whom It May Concern when recipient is unknown.

I am writing to enquire about / to inform you that…Standard formal opening statement of purpose

With reference to your email of [date]…Referring back to a previous communication

Please find attached / enclosed…Indicating a document is included with the email/letter

I would be grateful if you could…Polite formal request. More tentative than "Please could you…"

Should you have any further questions, please do not hesitate to contact me.Standard closing offer of assistance in formal correspondence

Yours sincerely, / Yours faithfully,Sincerely: when you know the name. Faithfully: when you don't. (British convention)

Best regards, / Kind regards, / Best,Semi-formal to informal closings for emails

✦ Everyday Situations — Practical English

Could I have the bill / check, please?Bill (British) / Check (American) in a restaurant

Do you accept card? / Is there a cash machine nearby?Cash machine (UK) = ATM (US)

Excuse me, how do I get to…?Asking for directions. Use Excuse me to get attention first.

Sorry, I didn't catch that.Informal way to say you didn't hear or understand something

Could you give me a hand with this?Informal request for help. Give someone a hand = help them.

It's on me. / I'll get this one.Offering to pay for something (meal, drinks, etc.)

What time does [the museum / shop] open/close?Asking about business hours

Would you mind if I…? / Is it alright if I…?Polite permission requests. Would you mind → respond: No, not at all (= yes, it's fine).

I'm afraid I can't make it. / Something's come up.Politely declining an invitation or cancelling a plan

That's a good point. / Fair enough. / I take your point.Acknowledging another person's argument in discussion

✦ Politeness Strategies — The British Art of Indirectness

That's quite interesting.Meaning often: That's rather odd or not very interesting. (British understatement)

I'm not sure that's quite right.Meaning: That's wrong. (indirect correction)

With all due respect…Usually signals polite but firm disagreement: "With all due respect, I disagree."

You might want to consider…Polite suggestion/recommendation without sounding prescriptive

It's not bad. (British)Often means: It's actually quite good. British understatement at work.

Could we perhaps…? / Might it be possible to…?Very formal/tentative suggestions in professional settings

✦ Appendix

Quick Reference — The Rules That Matter Most

✦ The 12 Rules That Solve 80% of Errors 1. Subject and verb must agree in number: She WORKS (not: She work).
2. Use A before consonant sounds; AN before vowel sounds: a university · an hour.
3. IT'S = it is; ITS = possessive. The apostrophe never indicates possession in pronouns.
4. THEIR = possessive; THERE = place; THEY'RE = they are. Never interchangeable.
5. Uncountable nouns (information, advice, furniture) take singular verbs and no article A/AN.
6. After DID/DIDN'T always use the base infinitive: "I didn't GO" (not: "didn't went").
7. -ED adjectives = feelings; -ING adjectives = causes: "I am bored" / "the film is boring".
8. FOR + duration; SINCE + starting point: "for three years" / "since 2021".
9. DESPITE takes a noun/gerund directly (no "of"): "Despite the rain" not "Despite of the rain".
10. LOOK FORWARD TO is followed by a gerund: "I look forward to HEARING from you."
11. Comparatives: never mix -er with MORE: "taller" OR "more tall" — not "more taller".
12. WHO = subject; WHOM = object. Test: replace with he/she (who) or him/her (whom).

Commonly Confused Words	Difference	Memory Trick
affect / effect	affect = verb (to influence); effect = noun (the result)	RAVEN: Remember Affect Verb Effect Noun
then / than	then = time sequence; than = comparison	thAn = compArison
accept / except	accept = to receive; except = excluding	accEPT = I'll TAKE it
principal / principle	principal = main / school head; principle = rule or belief	principAL = the principAL is your pAL
complement / compliment	complement = completes something; compliment = praise	complIment = I like it
lose / loose	lose (verb) = not to win/find; loose (adj) = not tight	lose has one O; loose has two (it's let loose)
stationary / stationery	stationary = not moving; stationery = paper/pens	stationEry = you write with a pEn
practice / practise (UK)	practice = noun; practise = verb	The sAme distinction as advIce/advIse in UK English

✦ Irregular Plural Reference — The Most Essential man → men · woman → women · child → children · person → people · tooth → teeth
foot → feet · goose → geese · mouse → mice · ox → oxen · die → dice
leaf → leaves · half → halves · wolf → wolves · life → lives · wife → wives
Unchanged: sheep · deer · fish · species · aircraft · moose · series · means
Latin/Greek originals: criterion → criteria · phenomenon → phenomena · analysis → analyses · basis → bases · medium → media · datum → data · alumnus → alumni

✦ ✦ ✦

English GrammarComplete Reference Guide — Grammar Rules · Spelling · Punctuation · Tenses · Idioms · Usage —

English Grammar
Complete Reference Guide — Grammar Rules · Spelling · Punctuation · Tenses · Idioms · Usage —